Theme Of Sin In Hamlet - 1956 Words

When King Hamlet’s ghost tells Prince Hamlet that he was murdered by his ruthless brother, Claudius, he commands the prince to avenge â€Å"his foul and most unnatural murder† (1.5.25). Hamlet chooses to obey the ghost and seek vengeance, rather than justice. William Shakespeare uses Hamlet (appx. 1599) as an example of the nature and consequences of sin in the world, which is highlighted by five specific themes; one per each act. The first act’s theme is the actual â€Å"Fall† itself, while the second’s is acting and spying. The third act’s theme is guilt, the fourth’s is deception and madness, and lastly, the fifth and final act’s theme is death. The theme, of sin, is â€Å"fully absorbed into the aesthetic DNA of imagery, language, and character.†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"If thou didst ever thy dear father love†¦ Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder† (1.5.23-25). From the Fall grows a new sin; obsession. Hamlet begins to obsess over what to do, if the ghost is even real, and if revenge is even his to take. â€Å"What buckles under the pressure of the apparition is the notion of likeness†¦ that underwrites Hamlet’s recollection of his father, or, rather, the ratio or likeness and difference threatens to collapse.† (Greenblatt 192) Because of the original sin and the Fall, Hamlet is trapped. Claudius has â€Å"covered his tracks so well that he is vulnerable only to a secret revenge† and Hamlet believes that he must take it (Gilles 418) The second act of the play’s theme is repercussions of the Fall and broken trust. Prince Hamlet has devoted himself to plotting his father’s revenge, but after spending so much time on such difficult and contemplative issues, he has gone a bit â€Å"mad† (both literally and also, for show). His mother, Gertrude, and the new King, Claudius, begin to worry about his behavior. During this time, Polonius, a Lord, suggests that Hamlet is perhaps acting insane because he secretly desires his daughter, Ophelia, and is deeply in love with her. Claudius agrees to spy in on Hamlet and Ophelia as they are conversing to see if what Polonius has said is true and he deduces that Hamlet is mad, alright, but not with love for Ophelia; he orders her to a nunnery and even declares thatShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of William Shakespeare s Hamlet 903 Words   |  4 Pagesbeing wrong for something that he or she didn’t commit. It is based on the old saying ‘an eye for an eye principle’ and isn’t the best way to deal with conflicts, especially when it involves family members. In William Shakespeare’s play â€Å"Hamlet†, Laertes, Hamlet, and the younger Fortinbras all had thoughts of vengeance for the deaths of their fathers. Although they acted on their emotions, but their methods of doing so was entirely different. Because of this, only one out of the three rose toRead MoreThe Theme of Appearance vs. Reality in William Shakespeares Works729 Words   |  3 PagesThe Theme of Appearance vs. Reality in William Shakespeares Works Characters within one of William Shakespeares greatest tragic plays, Hamlet, appear to be true and honest but in reality are infested with many falsehoods and deceptions. Characters such as Polonius, Claudius, and Hamlet give an impression of a person who is sincere and genuine, but behind their masks are plagued with lies and evil. AsRead MoreHamlet As A Tragic Hero1305 Words   |  6 Pagesunderstanding of someone else’s misfortune. Hamlet, in this case, is the tragic hero due to many different sources that cause the reader to have an immense amount of sympathy for him. A series of events such as murder, failed relationships, and all the madness, created the feeling of sympathy from the audience. These specific sources cause the reader to see the development of the overall themes of deceit, justice, and revenge. Deceit is one of the main themes presented throughout the play startingRead MoreEssay on Suicide in Hamlet1624 Words   |  7 PagesWilliam Shakespeares Hamlet, suicide is an important and continuous theme throughout the play. Hamlet is the main character who contemplates the thought of suicide many different times throughout the play, since the murder of his father. Hamlet weighs the advantages of leaving his miserable life with the living, for possibly a better but unknown life with the dead. Hamlet seriously contemplates suicide, but decides against it, mainly because it is a mortal sin against God. Hamlet continues to sayRead MoreThe Great Flood Of Gilgamesh, The Canterbury Tales, And Hamlet1311 Words   |  6 Pages A theme is the underlying message or overall meaning of a story. Authors use this literary device in stories to convey a critical belief about life. A theme of a book is usually seen as a universal in nature because when a theme is universal, it touches on human experience. Sometimes there are multiple themes to a story and they may or may not be stated directly. Religion is a theme found throughout the stories of Gilgamesh, Beowulf, The Canterbury Tales, and Hamlet. The theme of religion isRead MoreAppearence vs. Reality in William Shakespeares Hamlet Essay1671 Words   |  7 Pages amp;#65279;Appearance vs. Reality nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; In Shakespeare’s tragedy, Hamlet, there is a dominant and overwhelming theme that is concurrent throughout the play. Throughout the play, all the characters appear as one thing on the outside, yet on the inside they are completely different. The theme of appearance versus reality surrounds Hamlet due to the fact that the characters portray themselves as one person on the outside, and one different on the inside. In the play, ClaudiusRead MoreGuilt Theme in Shakespeare785 Words   |  4 Pagesare not careful and don’t deal with the problem it can literally eat you alive. William Shakespeare uses the theme of guilt in two of his most famous plays, Macbeth and Hamlet. In Macbeth, Lady Macbeth starts to regret her decision in supporting Macbeth in murdering Duncan. In Hamlet, Claudius carries around the guilt of killing King Hamlet and doesn’t find it a problem until he realizes Hamlet knows what he did. Both circumstances in each play support a famous quote by Lady Macbeth about the truthRead MoreHamlet, By William Shakespeare1003 Words   |  5 PagesIn Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, women also remain within a confined space of their chastity that is dictated by men. Claudius’ manipulation of Gertrude defines her submissive character as a woman. The family in Ophelia’s life command her actions due to viewing the purpose of her existence to be innocent. Ophelia is also driven to madness at the mercy of Hamlet, taking her own life. Shakespeare uses the few women in Hamlet, who are portrayed as sinful and weak-willed by being manipulated by men, toRead MoreEssay about Appearance vs. Reality in William Shakespeares Hamlet1007 Words   |  5 PagesAppearance vs. Reality in William Shakespeares Hamlet In Hamlet, one of Shakespeares greatest tragedies, there is a prevailing theme that is concurrent throughout the play. Throughout the play, all the characters appear to be one thing on the outside, yet on the inside they are completely different. The theme of appearance versus reality is prominent in Hamlet because of the fact that the characters portray themselves different from what they really are. In the playRead More Revenge in Shakespeares Hamlet Essay1124 Words   |  5 PagesRevenge in Shakespeares Hamlet Revenge. Revenge causes one to act blindly through anger, rather than through reason. It is based on the principle of an eye for an eye, but this principle is not always an intelligent theory to live by. Young Fortinbras, Laertes, and Hamlet were all looking to avenge the deaths of their fathers. They all acted on emotion, and this led to the downfall of two, and the rise to power of one. Since the Heads of the three major families were each murdered, the eldest

Gay Rights Essay - 1291 Words

Gay Rights Two men are walking down the street very peacefully until they decide to kiss one another right out in the open. Some people look upon this as weird and others look upon it in disgust. Some even get angry about it. Is there a problem with what these men just did? Should they be left alone or reprimanded for what they have done? The issue of gay rights is very cloudy in our great nation. Most of this is due to the problems with the issue, the reasons for controversy, and pros and cons of the issue. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;First of all, both sides have too many problems with gay rights for there to be a common ground on the issue. The biggest problem I find with the whole thing is the problem is not just fought by words,†¦show more content†¦All who oppose state that marriage is the holy joining of a man and a woman, not a man and a man. Secondly, the question of whether gays should be able to adopt children is also a problem. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics â€Å"†¦gay couples can provide the loving, stable and emotionally healthy family lives that children need† (Adoption). But, â€Å"Family values advocates have attacked the policy, accusing doctors’ group of using faulty science to advance a gay agenda† (Adoption). The third issue is whether or not gays are born the way they are or if it is genetic. This of all the issues would help to shape the decisions of both sides of the issue. Tony, a gay student at Valencia Community College states, â€Å"I know many gay people, sometimes it depends on the individual person, I personally think that I was born gay† (Tony). nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Lastly, each one of these issues of controversy has its good and bad points. To get a better view on both sides of the issue I interviewed two homosexual males who have differing opinions on the issue. On the issue of gay marriage, Brian had this to say: â€Å"Since gay people tend not to stay together as long, I see no reason for them to be married in the first place† (Brian). The second interviewee, Brandon, responded with: â€Å"I believe gays should have the right to marry, because if a man and a woman love one another just as a man and a man love one another, you should notShow MoreRelatedGay Rights1419 Words   |  6 Pagessimply, they are in love. The gay rights movement is a continuing procession that fights for their rights. The gay rights movement actually begins on November 11, 1950 when gay rights activist Harry Hay founds America’s first national gay rights organization by the name of Mattachine Society, according to the  "Timeline: Milestones in the American Gay Rights Movement†. Their leaders or people who advanced their purpose are Harvey Milk, Harry Hay, LGBT, or lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transsexual groupsRead MoreGay Rights, Gay, Lesbian, And Society1202 Words   |  5 PagesOver the past decades, being gay was something no one talked about. It was a subject that was very taboo and society didn’t accept. People saw it as a stage one goes through and something unnatural. Thanks to the media, more and more celebrities have come out of the closet over the years. Soon people became accepting of the gay community and their life style. Being openly gay, lesbian, transgender, or bisexual in the workforce can lead to discrimination. Gay mirages are also frowned upon by societyRead MoreThe Rights Of Gay And Lesbian Couples Essay1536 Words   |  7 Pagesthe majority believe that they deserve the rights they are granted with the aid of the government. An upstanding citizen who pays the ir taxes, serves their network and abides by means of the regulation must be afforded the rights of an American. however, no longer all residents are afforded same rights. gay and lesbians are continuously denied rights which are typically taken for granted through the common American. particularly, gay and lesbians couples are denied the proper to marry even supposingRead MoreGay Community Rights and Respinsiblities Essay1392 Words   |  6 PagesThe circumstances containing homosexuality have formed a varying timeline. The LGBT community’s rights and responsibilities must match those of society in general. Throughout the last 50 years the rights deserved by those who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender has been debated. Debates have included topics such as same sex marriage, housing security, and job security. The LGBT community needs laws protecting it from hate crimes. There have been multiple incidents LGBT individuals have beenRead MoreEssay on Effects of Gay Rights in America943 Words   |  4 PagesMatthew Shepard. He was given a life sentence. States must inflict a harsher punishment for people who commit gay violence crimes because over the years hate crimes based on sexual orientation have become the third highest category reported. Many people claim that the violence happenes not because of sexual orientation, but because it is just an act to be committed. According to the Human Rights Campaign, crimes against homosexual people resulted in four deaths in 1998 alone. James Ward, a thirty-sevenRead MoreThe Struggle Of Gay Rights1893 Words   |  8 Pages The struggle between Edward and Bella in the â€Å"Twilight Saga† can be closely related to the struggle of gay right’s in today’s society. During the whole entire saga Edward and Bella have to fight to keep their relationship with one another. This is similar to what the LGBT community has been doing for many years now. In the â€Å"Twilight Saga† some of the characters do not believe that Edward and Bella should be with one another because he is a vampire and she is a human. Similarly in today’s societyRead MoreThe Rights Of Gays And The Homosexual Agenda1743 Words   |  7 Pagesdelivered a speech that was to have a drasti c effect on the human rights of gays and lesbians in Uganda. The speech, given at an anti-gay conference titled â€Å"Exposing the Truth behind Homosexuality and the Homosexual Agenda†, linked homosexuality with child molestation and the destruction of African families and laid the foundation for what was to become a virulently homophobic movement in Uganda. This religious crusade against the rights of gays and lesbians culminated in an oppressive law, passed in 2014Read MoreGay Rights And The Lgbt Community1542 Words   |  7 Pagesmass shooting in U.S. history occurred not to far from UCF. Patrons of Pulse nightclub, a gay nightclub in Orlando where massacred by Omar Mateen, Mateen took the lives of forty-nine individuals all because of their presence in a gay establishment. This tragic incident wasn’t the first attack on the LGBT community, but it’s massive fatalities put Congress under even more pressure to reform gun laws, gay rights, and suspected terrori st legislation. As a political Science major, I take a special interestRead MoreThe Fight for Gay Rights Essay1515 Words   |  7 PagesThe Fight for Gay Rights Restrictions have been put in place on homosexuals’ basic human rights because of individuals’ opinions and lack of tolerance. America is a country where all people should have the same rights, regardless of sexual preference. Gay marriage is illegal in more than thirty states even yet today (ProQuest). Homosexual people have been struggling with their rights for over a hundred years now, but the issue still hasn’t been resolved. Gay marriage and rights didn’t become aRead MoreThe Fight For Gay Rights Movement1155 Words   |  5 PagesToday, the fight for homosexual right is at the forefront of society, which yields a greater thrust towards full equality to heterosexuals with every passing day. This campaign for equality is known as the Modern Gay Rights Movement. The modern struggle for gay rights started as early as The Civil Rights Movement in 1954, and still continues today (Britannica). The Civil Rights Movement, from 1954-1968, sparked oppressed people to fight for their rights. In this period, shockwaves from blacks’ gaining

Learning Psychological Theories to Motivate Oneself

Question: Write about theLearning for Psychological Theories to Motivate Oneself. Answer: Learning is the gaining of knowledge and skills by training, experience or practice. Learning results in the change of behavior. However, learning faces challenges that originate from the learner or as a consequence of an unaccommodating environment. Though the study of factors contributing to learning has eliminated external obstacles, for people, internal motivation plays a major factor. Besides, people have different abilities regarding memory thus requiring some to take longer time and effort than others. For effective learning, an individual has to understand his/her internal obstacles and work around them to achieve the desired results from a learning process (Swets, 2014). Today, education has been diversified to accommodate the differences in individuals by incorporating audio-visual devices, rewards or punishment and other motivating factors. This paper seeks to explore the psychology theories of learning, thought and language, and motivation and emotion. It also examines ho w these approaches may be used in improving education and the use of memory techniques. Achieving the benefits of learning depends on the memory capacity of the learner. Nonetheless, people have different aptitudes in remembering things or knowledge learned. Due to these variations, different memory techniques were introduced to enable trainees to improve their abilities to remember what was taught. Each of the techniques has different efficiency and works differently for individuals. In schools, the most effective memory used by teachers and trainers in practice testing and distributed practices. The two approaches are believed to have the highest levels of efficiency compared to other methods. Practice testing involves challenging oneself with questions and answering them. It is not necessary that the person is in a testing environment (Jerome, 2013). Practice testing, however, works efficiently if a time lapse is allowed between the time of training and the time of testing. Otherwise, immediate retesting is less efficient. Practice testing enables a trainee to retain information and retrieve it from their long-term memory. Secondly, it allows the learners to organize their information and knowledge thus facilitating fast retrieval. They do so by encoding mediators through targets and cues (Barkley, Major 2014). Secondly, distributed practice is a process where the learner divides their training time by incorporating time intervals. This technique eliminates chunky learning sessions and splits them to shorter time periods. This approach increases both retention and absorption of information. It reduces the options of cramming and unproductive studying. The mind of the learner absorbs the information through interchanging periods of focused learning and diffused method of thinking. It allows the student to remember what was taught by processing small portions of information rather than large ones. Apart from this two, other procedures exist but have less efficiency (Neisser, 2014). Elaborative Interrogation includes creating a clarification for why an unequivocally expressed truth or idea is valid. A sizeable collection of confirmation backings the energy of illustrative addressing for advancing adapting, particularly "Why?" questions. The impacts are biggest when elaborations are exact as op posed to general; when earlier information is higher prior learning centers memory on particular preparing; and when elaborations are self-created instead of gave. Most reviews have concentrated on signaled coordinated, and certainty acknowledgment, with blended outcomes for studies concentrating on free review tests. Be that as it may, a current review including elaborative strategies in an undergrad initial Biology course demonstrated a 7% expansion in understudy execution (Barkley, Major 2014). Self-clarification includes understudies conveying in their particular words how new data is identified with known data or clarifying strides taken amid critical thinking. It upgrades learning by incorporating new information with prior information. It works best when no clarifications are given before or amid the understudy era of self-clarification. Likewise, self-clarification shown improvement over intelligent self-clarification after the issue has been explained. Examine shows self-clarification works for a wide age scope of learners and subjects. Across the board utilization of this system is tedious. Interleaved Practice will be the practice that blends various types of issues or studies material inside a solitary review session (Dunlosky, et al. 2013). The regular approach is to take in all parts of one idea, then refine issues or exercises applying that idea, then proceed onward to the following one in a direct manner. A case of this is to take in the ideas and equation on f inding the volume of a particular sort of healthy, then taking care of a few issues where you discover the amount of that strong. From that point onward, understudies proceed onward to the ideas and recipe for finding the volume of an alternate healthy and do a few practice issues for that sort. Following the learning techniques, operant conditioning theory by B.F. Skinner depends on the rate of chance under which knowledge forms a great component for progress in a plain conduct. The consequences of personal reaction to different occasions that occur in nature depend on one's ability to amend his or her conduct. Individual reaction delivers different results under different environments (Slavin Davis, 2006). For instance, the ability to characterize a word, solving a mathematical challenge, or even hitting a ball. Under conditions whereby specific stimulus-response gets compensated, the person concerned is mold to react on the same. The particular behavior of an individual to get molded operant operates in respect to the past experiences that a person has undergone in his life. Further, the reactions different people have on particular activities originate from their indented reactions and thus evoking a different reaction due to external jolts. The key element of Skinner's S-R hypothesis is supported. A coveted reaction is fortified by a support trainer. This support may be acclaimed in verbal terms, based on a descent evaluation and sentiments diversified to realize the set fulfillment goals. Further, the S-R hypothesis explains about the negative rewards that tend to boost the outcomes in an expanded reaction recurrence if this is drawn back into a distinguishable relationship so as to aversive the decreased results and reactions (Byrne, 2014). The calendars of fortification were given a significant consideration and these established positive impacts on strengthening people's conduct. The most negative aspect of the Skinner's hypothesis is that the hypothesis endeavors to offer behavioral clarifications of individuals based on an expensive scope of intellectual capabilities (Melton, 2014). The theories of language and thought, on the other hand, show that understanding the meaning and the different forms of a word would help in learning. The visualization of information and attaching it to a certain meaning by encoding targets and cues helps in learning. Relativity is anything but difficult to illustrate. To talk any dialect, you need to focus on the implications that are linguistically set apart in that dialect. Advocates of semantic determinism contend that such contrasts between dialects impact the ways individuals thinkmaybe the routes in which entire societies are sorted out Lastly is the theory of motivation and emotion. Motivation is a key element in learning. It is the driving force towards achieving behavioral changes. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs has regularly been spoken to in a various leveled pyramid with five levels (Cherry, 2015). The first four pyramid levels form humans physiological needs while the highest level of self actualization gets viewed as a d evelopment need for an individual. The lowest needs must get met or satisfied first before one aspires to address the higher range needs as long as far as the pyramid is concerned. The levels are as per the following. First, Self-actualization entails one's ability to invent new ideas, think critically, show great charisma, and ability to conduct intense research among others. Self-esteem needs involve confidence, accomplishment, the certainty of progress, and regard for other people (Jerome, 2013). Belongingness incorporates love, fellowship, closeness, family, and so forth. Security integrates security of condition, work, assets, well-being, property, and so forth. Physiological incorporates air, sustenance, water, sex, rest, different elements towards homeostasis, and so forth. In learning, however, only the highest dual levels act as significant motivators (Lester, 2013). They are the growth needs. The most elevated amount is self-completion or the self-satisfaction. Conduct for this situation is not driven or inspired by lacks but instead one's yearning for self-awareness and the need to wind up noticeably every one of the things that a man is equipped for getting to be. Learning is challenging where obstacles faced are recurrent. However, psychology has developed theories that relate to learning, motivation and improving retention of information. Practice testing and distributed methods use employ the operant conditioning theory of learning. They allow a learner to retain information and retrieve the relevant knowledge in a testing environment. Additionally, including visualization and encoding of knowledge according to linguistic relativism enables learners to absorb information at a faster rate. Finally, motivation is a key driving force, and the desire to achieve the benefits of a learning process is the intrinsic motivator. References Barkley, E. F., Cross, K. P., Major, C. H. (2014). Collaborative learning techniques: A handbook for college faculty. John Wiley Sons. Byrne, J. H., LaBar, K. S., LeDoux, J. E., Schafe, G. E., Thompson, R. F. (2014). Learning and memory. In From Molecules to Networks. Elsevier Inc.. Cherry, K. (2015). Hierarchy of needs.The Five Levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. About.com Guide. Link. Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58. Jerome, N. (2013). Application of the Maslows hierarchy of need theory; impacts and implications on organizational culture, human resource and employees performance. International Journal of Business and Management Invention, 2(3), 39-45. Lester, D. (2013). Measuring Maslow's hierarchy of needs.Psychological Reports,113(1), 15- 17. Melton, A. W. (Ed.). (2014). Categories of human learning. Academic Press. Neisser, U. (2014).Cognitive psychology: Classic edition. Psychology Press. Slavin, R. E., Davis, N. (2006). Educational psychology: Theory and practice. Swets, J. A. (2014).Signal detection theory and ROC analysis in psychology and diagnostics: Collected papers. Psychology Press.

To investigate the factors that affect the amount energy produced Essay Example

To investigate the factors that affect the amount energy produced Essay To investigate the factors that affect the amount energy produced in neutralisation reactions. The Aim of this investigation is to see how the dependant variable, the heat realised as a result of neutralisation reaction changes as one independent variable is changed, and to find why these changes occur. Only one variable will be changed. This is because if more than one is changed as well, we will not know which factor is responsible for the change. The variables are specified below, along with the one that I have decided to vary.VariablesThe following variables can be controlled during the experiment and will be the ones we can change in the investigation. The one that I have chosen is listed below. These variables are called independent variables, and will allow us to assess and investigate the effect on the heat released by neutralisation reactions.1. The concentration of the acid or the alkali in the reaction could be decided to be varied (I have used the term alkali rather than base, because the substance will already be dissolved in water which is the definition of an alkali). To carry this out, one would have to obtain acids or bases or both of varied concentration, by obtaining a fairly strong concentration, and then diluting it down to get varied concentrations.This procedure would be time consuming, and there would certainly be room for much error, as the concentration may not be measured out correctly, leading to inaccuracy. A general trend that would probably be seen is that, as the concentration goes up, so does the heat released by neutralisation. This is because there are more ions in a solution of a higher concentration. I have listed this variable as one, but it is really two different variables: one can either vary the concentration of the acid or that of the base.2.The effect caused by the volume of the reactants could also be investigated. To do this, one would merely have to repeat the procedure, but using different volumes of the reactants each time. This procedure would be simple and safe, but if the experiment is wished to be very accurate, you would have to use a pipette, which proves to be time consuming. A pattern that would be visible when the different volumes of acid and alkali are mixed is that, as the volume rises, the heat of neutralisation too would go up, because there are again more ions in the volume to be neutralised. The conditions for this theory are as follows: the different volumes must be of the same concentration, if they are not of the same concentration the results would not show the correct pattern as two variables would be being altered.3. If desired, it is also possible to vary the strength of the acid and/or base. By this, it is meant that a weak acid could be used, like Ethanoic acid, with a weak, and then strong alkali; the results could be compared to that which occurs when a strong acid is used with either alkali. The limitations of varying this factor are as follows: there is only one link between a strong and a weak acid, which is merely a scale called the pH scale. If this factor were investigated, we would obviously find that the combination of a strong acid and alkali would reproduce the highest energy rise. This is because the strong acids and alkalis dissociate to a higher degree, they split up completely into their composite ions. In weak acids, the degree of ionisation is less, and as a result of this, the number of ions in the solution is less, which prevents complete neutralisation.4. The type of acid or alkali could also be used as a variable. This process would be investigated by using different acids and alkalis, whether they are strong or weak. The results of each acid and alkali (strong and weak) would be compared. This variable could be put under the same category of varying the strength of the acid. This is because as different types of acids and alkalis are being used, the strength of those acids and alkalis would also be being varied in the pr ocess. The other factors of whether the acid is Monoprotic, Diprotic or Triprotic all come under this heading. Acids, which form one H+ ion from each acid molecule, are called Monoprotic. Acids which form two are called Diprotic. Acids, which form three, are called Triprotic.5. The last variable that could be used in the investigation is altering pressure of the acid and alkali. To do this, you would have to have an expensive, impractical piece of apparatus that would allow the pressure to be varied. The practical would be very difficult to perform and would be impractical. If you decided to use this procedure, you must also take safety precautions, because there is potential for the pressure container to either implode or explode. I believe that if the pressure were raised, there would not be much of a difference to the heat of neutralisation, unless it was raised fairly high which again is a limitation to this procedure. Another problem is that the equipment needed for this variab le is not easy to obtain, and therefore couldnt be used.Introduction:Neutralisation reactionsAcids and alkalis are defined as:An Acid:A substance that dissolves in water, producing H+ ions as the onlypositive ions.An acid is a substance, which contains hydrogen, which may be replaced by a metal to form a salt.Properties:They change moist litmus paper from blue to red.They are soluble in water.They are electrolytes.They also have a sour or sharp taste.Cautions:Some acids are poisonousMany acids are corrosive and thus dangerous. They burn flesh.Acids as proton donors:Acids produce hydrogen ions as the only positive ion. For example when hydrogen chloride dissolves in water the following process occurs.HCL(aq) H+ (aq) + CL- (aq)The hydrogen ion is sometimes called a proton. In water, the proton is combined with water as a result of the following process:HCL(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+ (aq) + CL (aq)H30+ is known as a hydroxonium ion.Hydrochloric acid has donated its protons to the water:H+ (aq ) + H2O (l) H30+ (aq)All acids are proton donors.Strong acids are fully ionized in water and are strong electrolytes. A strong acid produces a high concentration of H+ ions in a water solution. E.g. Hydrochloric acid. (HCl). Examples: sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and nitric acid. For instance, nitric acid:HNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)Weak acids are partially ionized in water and are weak electrolytes. Examples: Ethanoic acid. A weak acid: Produces a low concentration of H+ ions in a water solution. E.g. Ethanoic acid. (CH3CO2H)Common strong acids include:Hydrochloric acid (HCl)Nitric acid (HNO3)Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)Common weak acids include:Citric acid (H3C6H5O7)Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) (vinegar)Alkalis and BasesA soluble base is something which produces OH- ions in water.A Base is a substance, which will react with an acid to form a salt.A base is a proton acceptor.An alkali is a base, which is soluble in water.Properties:They change litmus paper from red to blue .They are electrolytes.In addition many alkalis have a soapy feel.All bases and alkalis, except ammonia, are metal oxides or metal hydroxides.CAUTION: Many alkalis may be corrosive and poisonous. Example: sodium hydroxide is often called caustic soda. Caustic means burning.A strong alkali:Produces a high concentration of OH- ions in a water solution. Eg. Sodium hydroxide. (NaOH)Strong alkalis are fully ionized in water and are strong electrolytes.Weak alkali:Weak alkalis are only partially ionized in water and are weak electrolytes. A weak alkali produces a low concentration of OH- ions in a water solution. E.g. Ammonia solution. (NH4OH)Bases as proton acceptors- when a base reacts with an acid to form a salt, it accepts. Example: magnesium oxide reacts with sulphuric acid to form magnesium sulphateMgO(s) + H2SO4 (aq) MgSO4 (aq) + H20 (l)During this reaction the oxide ion, O2-, of the base accepts 2 protons H+ (O2- (s) + 2H+ (aq) H2O (l))Common strong alkalis include:Sodium hydrox ide (NaOH)Potassium hydroxide (KOH)Common weak alkalis include:Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH)Aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3)Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2)Hydroxide ions:When alkalis dissolve in water an alkaline solution is formed. Alkaline solutions contain hydroxide ions. Example solid sodium hydroxide produces hydroxide ions when added to water.NaOH(s) Na+(aq) + OH(aq)These hydroxide ions accept protons to form water in the reactions between acids and alkalis.H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)Neutralization reactionsAcids react with bases to form salts.Acid + Base salt + waterWhen aqueous solutions of an acid and a base are combined, a neutralisation reaction occurs. This reaction is characteristically very rapid and generally produces water and a salt. For a strong acid and a strong base in water, the neutralisation reaction is between the hydrogen and hydroxide ions dissolved in solution: H+ + OH- H2ONeutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base in such quantities that only th e salt + water are produced and no acid or base remain in the solution. When reacting both acid and alkali, both quantities must be as equal as possible, if a neutral solution is desired.Strong acids and strong bases completely break up, or dissociate, into their constituent ions when they dissolve in water. In the case of hydrochloric acid, hydrogen ions, H+, and chloride ions, Cl-, are formed. In the case of sodium hydroxide, sodium ions, Na+, and hydroxide ions, OH-, are formed. The hydrogen and hydroxide ions readily unite to form water. If the number of hydrogen ions in the hydrochloric acid solution is equal to the number of hydroxide ions in the sodium hydroxide solution, complete neutralisation occurs when the two solutions are mixed.Heat Involved in Chemical ReactionsThe reaction of neutralisation is of course an exothermic reaction. This means that heat is given out during the chemical change that occurs. Along with all neutralisation reactions, all combustion reactions ar e exothermic, as they of course give out heat. The reactions, which are accompanied by a drop in temperature, are known as endothermic reactions; these reactions take in heat. When using a value of measure to the amount of heat given out, the end result is given a negative value for the change in energy. This may seem a bit odd due to the fact that it is clear that an exothermic reaction emits heat. The reason for giving exothermic reactions a negative ?H value is because the energy held by the substance has decreased, conversely, in an endothermic reaction, the energy of the actual substance has risen because the energy is held in the bonds.The reason for heat being released from a reaction is because there are more bonds broken than are made, when bonds are broken, energy is taken in whereas the making of bonds leads to energy being produced. If the reaction is endothermic, there are obviously more bonds to be broken than have been made. It is also the case that stronger bonds tak e more energy to break than weaker bonds, and when stronger bonds are made, they release a greater amount of energy than when weaker bonds are created. Going by this, it is clear that every single reaction will have, to some degree, an energy change. Another factor discovered is that the amount of energy taken in by breaking bonds equals the amount of energy released through the creating of new bonds.The amount of energy taken in or released can be expressed in kilojoules or joules, the SI unit for energy. To make the investigation fair I will express my values per mole. The energy changes that occur in reactions can be shown using energy level diagrams. In these diagrams, energy goes on the y-axis, and the x-axis is labelled as the reaction process, which shows the progress of the reaction. These diagrams do not show any numerical values, they are only used to show trends of energy changes in exothermic and endothermic reaction. The enthalpy diagrams are shown below, for both endot hermic and exothermic reactionsThe equation used to work out the energy transferred is ENERGY (KJ)= S.H.C X MASS (in g) X temperature change (in Kelvin)Exothermic Reaction Endothermic ReactionProductsReactantsProducts ReactantsProgress Of reaction Progress Of reactionI have chosen to vary the type of the acid, for my investigation. I have decided that I am going to have a wide selection of different acids to investigate, but for the alkali, I am only going to have one weak and one strong one. I have chosen to vary the factor of type of acid, rather than volume or concentration (of either acid or alkali), because it would allow a simple and easy procedure. Another reason for choosing this variable is that it will allow a multitude of different combinations that will lead to clear-cut conclusions. The procedure for this variable is also somewhat less complex than most of the others. The acids that I will use for my experiments will be one molar values of sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitri c, Ethanoic, methanoic and citric acid. I will use one molar Sodium hydroxide for the course of the investigation.Preliminary experimentAim: to carry out the study on how the change in temperature of a neutralisation reaction is effect by the change in acid used in the reaction. I am going to use 6 different acids and 1 alkali for each experiment.Prediction: I predict that the stronger acids will produce a higher temperature rise because, first of all, they have no bonds to be broken; in solution they exist as their component ions, completely dissociated. It is known that the breaking of bonds causes energy to be taken in, and when bonds are made, energy is given out. Another reason for a stronger acid producing a higher value for the heat of neutralisation is because it has more free H+ ions. I have deduced this because it is known that in a strong acid, all of the molecules are dissociated into their component ions. When the strong acid is used to neutralise the alkali, a more vig orous reaction would occur as a result of there being more H+ ions in the solution to neutralise the OH- ions in the alkali to give out more heat.Apparatus:2* 100 ml beakers2* 500 ml beaker2 measuring cylindersThermometerStirring rodMethod:Collect the apparatus shown in the list above.Measure 25 ML of acid.Then place the acid in a measuring cylinder, to check if the volume is exactly 25 ml.Then collect 25ml of alkali, and do the same as the acid except in a different measuring cylinder.If the acid is Diprotic or Triprotic, and you are reacting it with a monoprotic alkali then you must use double or triple the volume of alkali in ratio to the amount of acid. This is to compensate for the extra H+ ions, which if not compensated for would result in an unfair experiment.Measure the temperature for both acid and alkali and note the value down.Then pour both into a beaker with the thermometer in the beaker as well.Record the temperature rise. Perform this experiment for the rest of the ac ids.Diagram for preliminary experimentResults of preliminary experimentSulphuricSodium Hydroxide20.020.032.012.0NitricSodium Hydroxide21.020.028.07.5HydrochloricSodium Hydroxide20.021.00.07.5EthanoicSodium Hydroxide20.021.027.06.5MethanoicSodium Hydroxide21.019.027.57.5CitricSodium Hydroxide20.021.027.06.5AcidAlkaliInitial Acid Temp. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½CInitial Alkali Temp. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½CFinal Temp. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½CTemp. Rise à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½CConclusion of preliminary resultsThe preliminary experiment performed was fairly well done, but there are several minor adjustments that could be made for when doing the real thing. Firstly, instead of using a beaker to mix the acid and alkali, a polystyrene cup could be used instead. This would stop energy being lost in the form of heat, to the surroundings. Also a lid would be placed on the polystyrene cup when reacting the acid and alkali to prevent further heat loss. I believe these are the only adjustments that need to be made for the real experiment. Th e prediction made was justified in the results processed, as the stronger acids produced a higher temperature rise due to the fact that, first of all, they have no bonds to be broken; in solution they exist as their component ions, completely dissociated. It is known that the breaking of bonds causes energy to be taken in, and when bonds are made, energy is given out. Another reason for a stronger acid producing a higher value for the heat of neutralisation is because it has more free H+ ions. I have deduced this because it is known that in a strong acid, all of the molecules are dissociated into their component ions. When the strong acid is used to neutralise the alkali, a more vigorous reaction would occur as a result of there being more H+ ions in the solution to neutralise the OH- ions in the alkali to give out more heat. For sulphuric acid there was a temperature change of 12*C, which was expected as it is a strong acid. However, for hydrochloric and nitric acid the temperature change was not as significant as expected. This could be due to wrong amounts of volume being mixed and more care will be taken when doing the actual experiment, to make sure equal amounts of volume are used. To avoid anomalous results the experiment could be repeated and I will do this in the real thing.Actual ExperimentAim: to carry out the study on how the change in temperature of a neutralisation reaction is effect by the change in acid used in the reaction. I am going to use 6 different acids and 1 alkali for the whole investigation, all with a concentration of one molar.Prediction: I predict that the stronger acids will produce a higher temperature rise because, first of all, they have no bonds to be broken; in solution they exist as their component ions, completely dissociated. It is known that the breaking of bonds causes energy to be taken in, and when bonds are made, energy is given out. Another reason for a stronger acid producing a higher value for the heat of neutralis ation is because it has more free H+ ions. I have deduced this because it is known that in a strong acid, all of the molecules are dissociated into their component ions. When the strong acid is used to neutralise the alkali, a more vigorous reaction would occur as a result of there being more H+ ions in the solution to neutralise the OH- ions in the alkali to give out more heat.Apparatus:2* 100 ml beakers1* 500 ml beaker2 measuring cylinders2 ThermometersStirring rodPolystyrene cup and lidMethod:Collect the apparatus shown in the list above.Measure 25 ML of acid.Then place the acid in a measuring cylinder, to check if the volume is exactly 25 ml.Then collect 25ml of alkali, and do the same as the acid except in a different measuring cylinder.If the acid is Diprotic or Triprotic, and you are reacting it with a Monoprotic alkali then you must use double or triple the volume of alkali in ratio to the amount of acid. This is to compensate for the extra H+ ions, which if not compensated for would result in an unfair experiment.Measure the temperature for both acid and alkali and note the value down.Then pour both into a beaker with the thermometer in the polystyrene cup as well and seal the cup with the lid quickly and carefully.Record the temperature rise and perform the experiment two more times. Perform this experiment for the rest of the acids, remembering to repeat it 3 times altogether for each acid.Results for main experimentAcidAlkaliInitial Acid Temp. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½CInitial Alkali Temp. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½CFinal Temp. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½CAverage Acid Temp. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½CAverage Alkali Temp. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½CAverage Initial Temp. Of Acid + Alkali à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½CAverage of Final Temp. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½CTemp. Rise à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C123123123SulphuricSodium Hydroxide21.020.020.022.020.021.032.031.032.020.321.020.731.711.0NitricSodium Hydroxide21.021.021.021.021.021.028.028.028.021.021.021.028.07.0HydrochloricSodium Hydroxide19.019.019.019.020.019.028.027.028.019.019.319.227.78.5EthanoicSodium Hydroxide20.020.020.021.021.020.027.027.027.020.020.720.327.06.7MethanoicSodium Hydroxide19.018.019.020.020.021.027.026.025.018.720.319.526.06.5CitricSodium Hydroxide19.019.019.019.019.019.028.028.028.019.019.019.028.09.0AnalysisAs I predicted for the actual experiments results, the stronger acids reacted to give a bigger temperature than compared to the weaker acids. However, this was not the case for all of the acids used. Citric acid gave a very high reading of temperature change when it is known that it isnt a very strong acid when compared with HCL and Nitric acid. But one should also take into account of the high volume citric acid used in reacting with the sodium hydroxide, as 75 cm(squared) of the citric acid were used to compensate for the fact that it is a Triprotic acid, as if the acid is Diprotic or Triprotic, and you are reacting it with a Monoprotic alkali (sodium hydroxide one molar in this case) then you must use double or triple the volume of alkali in ratio to the amount of acid. This is to compensate for the extra H+ ions, which if not compensated for would result in an unfair experiment.The temperature change for sulphuric acid was recorded as being high, as was expected. As predicted the stronger acids gave higher temperature changes. This is due to the fact that stronger acids produce a higher temperature rise because, first of all, they have no bonds to be broken; in solution they exist as their component ions, completely dissociated. It is known that the breaking of bonds causes energy to be taken in, and when bonds are made, energy is given out. Another reason for a stronger acid producing a higher value for the heat of neutralisation is because it has more free H+ ions. I have deduced this because it is known that in a strong acid, all of the molecules are dissociated into their component ions. When the strong acid is used to neutralise the alkali, a more vigorous reaction would occur as a result of there being more H+ ions in the so lution to neutralise the OH- ions in the alkali to give out more heat.To aid my evaluation of my results I have calculated the enthalpy changes for each of the acids used. I will compare these results with the change in kelvin results.AcidAverage temperature change/KelvinSpecific Heat CapacityMass/grams (including alkali)Energy change in JoulesSulphuric11.04.250.02310.0Nitric7.04.250.01470.0Hydrochloric8.54.250.01785.0Ethanoic6.74.250.01407.0Methanoic6.54.250.01365.0Citric9.04.2100.03780.0Change in Joules GraphChange in Kelvin results graphFurther AnalysisThe graphs for both change in Kelvin and Joules, have very similar patterns. The only difference between both is that Citric acid gives 3780.0 joules, which is 1470.0, more joules than sulphuric acid, which has a higher change in Kelvin than compared to citric acid.The reason for there to be a higher amount of energy maybe due to the fact that a higher volume is used for the citric acid than sulphuric acid, which may link to the fa ct that a higher volume of acid gives a higher enthalpy change.I believe my prediction was partially linked to the results recorded, mainly due to the fact that the weaker acids gave higher readings than expected, like Ethanoic and that the stronger acids gave lower than expected readings, like Hydrochloric acid. Overall I believe my results showed the trend that would be expected.